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Verb Conjugationong
Introduction
Regular verb classes
Irregular verbs
Singular and plural of verbs
Simulfactive and iterative of verbs
Chechen verbs have almost no differences of inflectional endings (they do not agree in person and
number with their subject, for instance) but show regular ablaut of stem vowels. (Ablaut refers to vowel changes
as in English drive/drove/driven or sit/sat or find/found
In Chechen as in English the ablaut changes reflect tense and aspect.) The regular verbs fall into 34 ablaut classes.
There are four ablaut grades or stem forms: the infinitive stem (used in infinitive, verbal noun, and negative forms),
the present stem (used in present, imperfect, and future tenses and converbs), the past stem (used in the witnessed
past tense),and the perfect stem (used in the non-witnessed past, the pluperfect, and anterior converbs).
Historical comparison makes clear that the Chechen ablaut alternations are much like Germanic
umlaut in origin, with the root vowel assimilating in height, frontness, and/or roundness to the vowel of the
ending. Infinitive, past, and perfect endings had the same vowels for all verbs, but there were three different regular present stem conjugations:
| Present |
Infinitive |
Witnessed past |
Anterior converb / perfect |
| *-o, *-u, *-e |
*-an |
*-ira |
*-ina |
After umlaut occurred, non-initial vowels underwent merger and
reduction, so that the conditioning environment for the
umlaut was lost. The *-i- of the anterior converb dropped
out if the resulting consonant cluster was phonotactically
permitted, closing the preceding syllable and causing
further changes in its vowel. Some of the original vowels of the endings
are preserved in the orthography, but in standard pronunciation
all the short vowels are the neutral schwa vowel (devoiced
and barely pronounced). The following table of conjugation
classes lists every regular vowel alternation separately.
A historical or abstract synchronic analysis would
reduce this large number of conjugations down to a smaller
basic set.
(In traditional Chechen grammar,
the present tense endings -u and -a define what are considered conjugations,
of which there are two, and ablaut is a phonological alternation
but does not define conjugation types. Here it is done the other way around:
the ablaut classes are the conjugation types and the present tense endings are the automatic
consequence of the conjugation type.)
Regular verb classes
| Class |
Infinitive |
Present |
Witnessed past |
Anterior converb |
Gloss |
| 1 |
laaca~ |
loocu |
leecira |
laecna |
catch |
| 2 |
waama~ |
weema |
weemira |
weemina |
learn |
| 3 |
d.aaqqa~ |
d.oaqqu |
d.aeqqira |
d.aeqqina |
take |
| 4 |
laatta~ |
laetta |
laettira |
laettina |
stand |
| 5 |
mala~ |
molu |
melira |
mella |
drink |
| 6* |
xa'a~ |
xu'u |
xi'ira |
xi'na |
sit down |
| 7 |
lata~ |
leta |
letira |
letta |
adhere/catch fire |
| 8 * |
xa'a~ |
xae'a |
xi'ira |
xi'na |
know (wissen) |
| 9 |
d.ahwa~ |
d.aehwa~ |
d.aehwira |
d.aehwna |
dare |
| 10 |
hwazha~ |
hwozhu |
hwaezhira |
hwaezhna |
look at |
| 11 |
qaiqa~ |
qoiqu |
qaiqira |
qaiqina |
call |
| 12 |
louza~ |
louzu |
leuzira |
leuzina |
play |
| 13 |
d.ouza~ |
d.euzu |
d.euzira |
d.euzina |
know (kennen) |
| 14 |
hwouza~ |
hwouzu |
hwaeuzira |
hwaeuzina |
spin thread |
| 15 |
twousa~ |
twaeusa |
twaeusira |
twaeusina |
fall asleep |
| 16 |
tuoxa~ |
tuuxu |
tyyxira |
toexna |
strike |
| 17 |
tuola~ |
toelu |
tyylira |
toella |
surpass |
| 18 |
hotta~ |
huttu |
hoettira |
hoettina |
stand up |
| 19 |
motta~ |
moettu |
moettira |
moettina |
think |
| 20 |
d.iesha~ |
d.oeshu |
d.iishira |
d.iashna |
read |
| 21 |
tiesha~ |
tiesha |
tiishira |
tiashna |
believe |
| 22 |
d.ialla~ |
d.oellu |
d.illira |
d.illina |
open |
| 23 |
d.iatta~ |
d.iatta |
d.ittira |
d.ittina |
beat |
| 24 |
d.uuxa~ |
d.uuxu |
d.yyxira |
d.yyxina/d.oexna |
dress |
| 25 |
d.usta~ |
d.ustu |
d.ystira |
d.ystina |
measure |
| 26 |
d.iica~ |
d.yycu |
d.iicira |
d.iicina |
narrate |
| 27 |
tilla~ |
tyllu |
tillira |
tillina |
put on top |
| 28 |
c'iiza~ |
c'iiza |
c'iizira |
c'iizina/c'iizna |
shriek (iter.) |
| 29 |
laa~ |
lou |
laira |
laina |
endure |
| 30* |
ga~ |
go |
gira |
gina |
see |
| 31* |
wa~ |
wa |
wira |
wina |
stay |
| 32* |
d.uo~ |
d.uo |
d.oira |
d.oina |
break |
| 33 |
d.ie~ |
d.oe |
d.iira |
d.iina |
kill |
| 34 * |
wie~ |
wa |
wiira |
wiina |
stay |
* Infrequent type:one or two examples only.
The last six classes (those from 29 on)
on have only one root consonant (the initial consonant)
and thus have monosyllabic infinitive and present tense
forms.They are either ancient monosyllables (ga~, d.a~, wa~) or secondary monosyllables resulting from loss of
an ancient intervocalic consonant (the others).Most of these classes have just one or
two verbs in them.(Historically these verbs all belonged to a few
of the commoner types, chiefly 5 and 7, and their various
modern phonologies result from the former intervocalic
consonant affecting the adjacent vowels while dropping
out.The other low-frequency classes, V6 and
8, have a glottal stop, which has usually dropped out
but was atypically retained here, as their second consonant.The glottal stop makes their first consonant behave
distinctively, assimilating more completely to the original
suffixal vowel; otherwise they would fall into classes
5 and 7 respectively.)
Irregular verbs
Irregular
verbs have idiosyncratic and non-phonological differences
between the present stem and the others.The present stem either is suppletive or lacks
a gender prefix present in the other forms.
| Infinitive |
Present |
Witnessed past |
Anterior converb |
Gloss |
| d.aa~ |
d.ooghu |
d.e'ara |
d.e'ana / d.e'na |
come |
| d.aaxka~ |
d.ooghu |
d.aexkira |
d.aexkina |
come (pl.) |
| d.ala~ |
le |
d.elira |
d.ella |
die |
| d.ala~ |
lo |
d.elira |
d.ella |
give |
| d.axa~ |
d.oedu |
d.axar |
d.axna |
go |
| d.ahwa~ |
hwo |
d.ehwira |
d.ehwna |
carry away |
| d.aa~ |
d.ahwa |
d.e'ara |
d.e'ana |
bring |
The defective irregular verb 'be' has only present-stem forms
(present, imperfect, simultaneous converb).When it requires an infinitive or future it appropriates
the form from the telic verb xila
'be, become', which has a full regular paradigm.The relationship between the two verbs may be diagrammed
as follows (asterisks indicate 'borrowing' of a form):
|
be(atelic) |
become, be (telic) |
| Infinitive |
xila~ * |
xila~ |
| Verbal noun |
d.ar |
x.ilar |
| Present |
d.u |
xylu |
| Imperfect |
d.ara |
xylura |
| Future |
xir d.u * |
xir d.u |
| Witnessed past |
--- |
xilira |
| Anterior converb |
--- |
xilla |
Singular and plural of verbs.A few verbs change their stems to agree
in number with the subject (if intransitive) or direct
object (if transitive).The known pairs are:
| |
Singular
|
Plural |
| |
Infinitive |
Present |
Past |
Infinitive |
Present |
Past |
| come |
d.aa~ |
d.ooghu |
d.e'ara |
d.aaxka~ |
d.ooghu |
d.aexkira |
| depart (sim.) |
d.aala~ |
d.oolu |
d.eelira |
d.oula~ |
d.oulu |
d.eulira |
| be contained |
d.aalla~ |
d.oallu |
d.aellira |
d.aaxka~ |
d.oaxku |
d.aexkira |
| take |
d.aaqqa~ |
d.oaqqu |
d.aeqqira |
d.aaxa~ |
d.ooxu |
d.eexira |
| run |
d.ada~ |
d.odu |
d.edira |
d.ouda~ |
d.oudu |
d.eudira |
| kill |
d.ie~ |
d.oe |
d.iira |
d.ai'a~ |
d.oi'u |
d.ai'ira |
| depart (iter.) |
d.iila~ |
d.yylu |
d.iilira |
d.oula~ |
d.oulu |
d.eulira |
| put down |
d.illa~ |
d.yllu |
d.illira |
d.axka~ |
d.oxku |
d.exkira |
| lie down |
d.izha~ |
d.yzhu |
d.izhira |
d.iisha~ |
d.yyshu |
d.iishira |
| insert |
d.olla~ |
d.ullu |
d.oellira |
d.oxka~ |
d.uxku |
d.oexkira |
| look at (sim.) |
hwazha~ |
hwozhu |
hwaezhira |
hwousa~ |
hwousu |
hwaeusira |
| look at (iter.) |
hwiezha~ |
hwoezhu |
hwiizhira |
hwiisa~ |
hwyysu |
hwiisira |
| drive off (sim.) |
laalla~ |
loallu |
laellira |
laaxka~ |
loaxku |
laexkira |
| drive off (iter.) |
lialla~ |
loellu |
liallira |
liexka~ |
loexku |
lixkira |
| hang |
olla~ |
ullu |
oellira |
oxka~ |
uxku |
oexkira |
| stop |
saca~ |
socu |
secira |
souca~ |
soucu |
seucira |
| put on top |
tilla~ |
tyllu |
tillira |
taxka~ |
toxku |
texkira |
| lie (iter.) |
willa~ |
wyllu |
willira |
wiaxka~ |
woexku |
wixkira |
| lie (sim.) |
willa~ |
wyllu |
willira |
waaxka~ |
woaxku |
waexkira |
| sit down (sim.) |
xa'a~ |
xu'u |
xi'ira |
xousha~ |
xoushu |
xeushira |
Simulfactive and iterative of verbs.A number of verbs distinguish a simulfactive
(one-time action) from an iterative (multiple or repeated
action).The
known pairs are listed below.There are over 80 (and hundreds more compound verbs
which use one of these as auxiliary).
Simulfactive
Iterative
|
Infinitive |
Present |
Past |
Infinitive |
Present |
Past |
| lift |
ai'a~ |
oi'u |
ai'ira |
ii'a~ |
yy'u |
ii'ira |
| chop fine |
casta~ |
costu |
cestira |
ciasta~ |
coestu |
ciistira |
| grimace |
ch'achq'a~ |
ch'echq'a |
ch'echq'ira |
ch'iachq'a~ |
ch'iachq'a |
ch'ichq'ira |
| get singed |
chaxcha~ |
chexcha |
chexchira |
chiaxcha |
chiaxcha |
chixchira |
| shriek |
c'ouza~ |
c'euza |
c'euzira |
c'iiza~ |
c'iiza |
c'iizira |
| go |
d.aala~ |
d.oolu |
d.eelira |
d.iila~ |
d.yylu |
d.iilira |
| descend |
d.ossa~ |
d.ussu |
d.oessira |
d.issa~ |
d.yssu |
d.issira |
| pour, stack |
d.otta~ |
d.uttu |
d.oettira |
d.itta~ |
d.yttu |
d.ittira |
| plant |
d.uogha~ |
d.uughu |
d.yyghira |
d.iigha~ |
d.yyghu |
d.iighira |
| squint |
gazha~ |
gezha |
gezhira |
giezha~ |
giezha |
giizhira |
| get up |
ghaatta~ |
ghoattu |
ghaettira |
ghitta~ |
ghyttu |
ghittira |
| make effort |
ghorta~ |
ghurtu |
ghoertira |
ghiarta~ |
ghiarta |
ghirtira |
| stand up |
hotta~ |
huttu |
hwoettira |
hitta~ |
hwyttu |
hittira |
| move |
hwaa~ |
hwou |
hwaira |
hwie~ |
hwoe |
hwiira |
| tangle |
hwaarcha~ |
hwaercha |
hwaerchira |
hwiarcha~ |
hwiarcha |
hwirchira |
| close eyes |
hwaba~ |
hwaeba |
hwaebira |
hwieba~ |
hwieba |
hwiibira |
| envy |
hwaga~ |
hwaega |
hwaegira |
hwiega~ |
hwoegu |
hwiigira |
| rub |
hwaqa~ |
hwoqu |
hwaeqira |
hwieqa~ |
hwoequ |
hwiiqira |
| crush |
hwasha~ |
hwoshu |
hwaeshira |
hwiesha~ |
hwoeshu |
hwiishira |
| caress |
hwasta~ |
hwostu |
hwaestira |
hwiasta~ |
hwiasta |
hwistira |
| daub |
hwaxa~ |
hwoxu |
hwaexira |
hwiexa~ |
hwoexu |
hwiixira |
| look (sg.) |
hwazha~ |
hwozhu |
hwaezhira |
hwiezha~ |
hwoezhu |
hwiizhira |
| look (pl.) |
hwousa~ |
hwousu |
hwaeusira |
hwiisa~ |
hwyysu |
hwiisira |
| rotate |
hwouza~ |
hwaeuza |
hwaeuzira |
hwiiza~ |
hwiiza |
hwiizira |
| roll |
karcha~ |
kercha |
kerchira |
kiarcha~ |
kiarcha |
kirchira |
| drive (sg.) |
laalla~ |
loallu |
laellira |
lialla~ |
loellu |
lillira |
| count |
laara~ |
looru |
leerira |
liera~ |
loeru |
liirira |
| drive (pl.) |
laaxka~ |
loaxku |
laexkira |
liaxka~ |
loexku |
lixkira |
| hide |
lachq'a~ |
lechq'a |
lechq'ira |
liachq'a~ |
liachq'a |
lichq'ira |
| dry up |
laq'a~ |
leq'a |
leq'ira |
lieq'a |
lieq'a |
liiq'ira |
| leak, dro[ |
lasha~ |
lesha |
leshira |
liesha |
liesha |
liishira |
| swing |
lasta~ |
lesta |
lestira |
liasta |
liasta |
listira |
| complain |
latq'a~ |
letq'a |
letq'ira |
liatq'a~ |
liatq'a |
litq'ira |
| put together |
lawa~ |
lowu |
laewira |
liewa~ |
loewu |
liiwira |
| step |
louza~ |
louzu |
leuzira |
liiza~ |
lyyzu |
liizira |
| seek |
laxa~ |
loxu |
lexira |
liexa~ |
loexu |
liixira |
| catch fire;adhere |
lata~ |
leta |
letira |
lieta~ |
lieta |
liitira |
| play instrument |
laqa~ |
loqu |
leqira |
lieqa~ |
loequ |
liiqira |
| step |
louza~ |
louzu |
leuzira |
liiza~ |
lyyzu |
liizira |
| drink |
mala~ |
molu |
melira |
miila~ |
myylu |
miilira |
| shine |
q'aaga~ |
q'eega |
q'eegira |
q'iega~ |
q'iega |
q'iigira |
| separate |
q'aasta~ |
q'aesta |
q'aestira |
q'iesta~ |
q'iesta |
q'iistira |
| take fright |
q'aaxka~ |
q'aexka |
q'aexkira |
q'iexka~ |
q'iexka |
q'iixkira |
| glimpse |
q'ada~ |
q'eda |
q'edira |
q'ieda~ |
q'ieda |
q'iidira |
| vacillate |
qarsta~ |
qersta |
qerstira |
qiarsta~ |
qiarsta |
qirstira |
| smile |
q'azha~ |
q'ezha |
q'ezhira |
q'iezha~ |
q'iezha |
q'iizhira |
| throw |
qossa~ |
qussu |
qoessira |
qiisa~ |
qyysu |
qiisira |
| reach for |
qouda~ |
qeudu |
qeudira |
qiida~ |
qyydu |
qiidira |
| rumble |
q'ouq'a~ |
q'euq'a |
q'euq'ira |
q'ieq'a~ |
q'ieq'a |
q'iiq'ira |
| inflate |
qousa~ |
qousu |
qeusira |
qiisa~ |
qyysu |
qiisira |
| argue |
q'ousa~ |
q'ousu |
q'eusira |
q'iisa~ |
q'yysu |
q'iisira |
| stop |
saca~ |
socu |
secira |
sieca~ |
soecu |
siicira |
| flash |
saga~ |
sega |
segira |
siega~ |
siega |
siigira |
| swear |
sarda~ |
serda |
serdira |
siarda~ |
siarda |
sirdira |
| sprinkle |
sarsa~ |
sersa |
sersira |
siarsa~ |
siarsa |
sirsira |
| bend |
satta~ |
setta |
settira |
siatta~ |
siatta |
sittira |
| slide |
sharsha~ |
shersha |
shershira |
shiarsha~ |
shiarsha |
shirshira |
| rise (dough) |
sousa~ |
seusa |
seusa |
siisa~ |
siisa |
siisira |
| stalk |
taba~ |
teba |
tebira |
tieba~ |
tieba |
tiibira |
| crawl |
taqa~ |
teqa |
teqira |
tieqa~ |
tieqa |
tiiqira |
| repay |
taqa~ |
toqu |
teqira |
tieqa~ |
toequ |
tiiqira |
| neigh |
tarsa~ |
tersa |
tersira |
tiarsa~ |
tiarsa |
tirsira |
| throw |
tasa~ |
tosu |
tesira |
tiisa~ |
tyysu |
tiisira |
| push |
tatta~ |
tottu |
tettira |
titta~ |
tyttu |
tittira |
| sink |
tawa~ |
taewa |
taewira |
tiewa~ |
tiewa |
tiiwira |
| rock |
taxka~ |
toxku |
texkira |
tiaxka~ |
tiaxka |
tixkira |
| pull |
uoza~ |
uuzu |
yyzira |
iiza~ |
yyzu |
iizira |
| lie (pl.) |
waaxka~ |
woaxku |
waexkira |
wiaxka~ |
woexku |
wixkira |
| get tired of |
watq'a~ |
waetq'a |
waetq'ira |
wiatq'a~ |
wiatq'a |
witq'ira |
| bellow |
waxa~ |
waexa |
waexira |
wiexa~ |
woexu |
wiixira |
| stab |
wotta~ |
wuttu |
woettira |
witta~ |
wyttu |
wittira |
| break(of rope) |
xaada~ |
xeeda |
xeedira |
xieda~ |
xieda |
xiidira |
| turn over |
xaarca~ |
xaerca |
xaercira |
xiarca~ |
xiarca |
xircira |
| choose |
xaarzha~ |
xoarzhu |
xaerzhira |
xiarzha~ |
xoerzhu |
xirzhira |
| ask |
xaatta~ |
xoattu |
xaettira |
xiatta~ |
xoettu |
xittira |
| ride |
xaaxka~ |
xoaxku |
xaexkira |
xiexka~ |
xoexku |
xiixkira |
| crumple |
xaba~ |
xeba |
xebira |
xieba~ |
xieba |
xiibira |
| shudder |
zouza~ |
zouzu |
zeuzira |
ziiza~ |
ziiza |
ziizira |
and several formed by suppletion or partial suppletion:
|
Simulfactive
|
Iterative |
| say |
aala~ |
oolu |
eelira |
b.aaxa~ |
booxu |
beexira |
| deliver |
d.aa~ |
d.ahwa |
d.e'ara |
qiehwa~ |
qoehwu |
qiihwira |
| tear |
d.aat'a~ |
d.eet'a |
d.eet'ira |
iet'a~ |
iet'a |
iit'ira |
| run |
d.ada~ |
d.odu |
d.edira |
ida~ |
ydu |
idira |
| go |
d.axa~ |
d.oedu |
d.axar |
iaxa~ |
oexu |
ixira |
| fall, go down |
d.uozha~ |
d.uuzhu |
d.yyzhira |
iega~ |
oegu |
iigira |
| burst |
iaqqa~ |
iaqqa/oeqqu |
iqqira |
lialxa~ |
lialxa |
lilxira |
| take |
ieca~ |
oecu |
iicira |
iid.a~ |
iid.o |
iid.ira |
| hit |
tuoxa~ |
tuuxu |
tyyxira |
d.iatta~ |
d.iatta |
d.ittira |
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